EC Nutrition

Per and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) encompass over 7,000 synthetic compounds illustrious for their cognition to contribute resistance to fat, fire, and water in various materials, including food packaging. The chemical persistence of PFAS, attributed to the robust carbon-fluorine bonds, has earned them the label “forever chemicals”. Since their introduction in the mid- nineteenth century, these compounds have expedited advancements in material sciences and different industries including textiles, electronics, and firefighting. However, their widespread application has resulted in extensive environmental contamination. They are now detectable across different environmental compartments, including air, water, soil, and biological systems like milk, fish, fruits, and vegetables. The pervasive nature of PFAS reflects an important risk to human health, with evidence linking these substances to carcinogenicity, reproductive toxicity, immune system suppression, and vaccine resistance. In response to this pressing concern, both scientific research and regulatory frameworks are evolving rapidly. This review provides in-depth reasoning of the current legislation on PFAS, advanced know-how for their detection and quantification, their toxicity profiles, and their contamination of environmental and food matrices. This review provides new insights into enhanced apprehension of PFAS impacts on future research and policy decisions.

 Keywords: Per and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances; Forever Chemicals; Human, Environment; Contamination; Milk; Vegetables; Fruits; Fish; Soil

1. Bansal OP., et al. “Per and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the environment: A review”. Journal of Advanced Scientific Research 7 (2022): 01-25.
2. Borghese MM., et al. “Association of perfluoroalkyl substances with gestational hypertension and preeclampsia in the MIREC study”. Environment International 141 (2020): 105789.
3. Jose L Roscales BR., et al. “Levels and trends of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in water (2013-2020) and fish from selected riverine basins in Spain”. Chemosphere3 (2022): 131940.
4. Daniele AM., et al. “Bioaccumulation of Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in a tropical estuarine food”. Science of the Total Environment 754 (2021): 142146.
5. Kotlarz N., et al. “Measurement of novel, drinking water-associated PFAS in blood from adults and children in Wilmington, North Carolina”. Environmental Health Perspectives 2 (2024): 29002.
6. Krupa PM., et al. “Chronic aquatic toxicity of perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) to Ceriodaphnia dubia, Chironomus dilutus, Danio rerio, and Hyalella Azteca”. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 241 (2022): 113838.
7. Bolan N., et al. “Distribution, behavior, bioavailability, and remediation of poly- and per-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in solid biowastes and biowaste-treated soil”. Environment International 155 (2021): 106600.
8. Brevik EC., et al. “Communicating the importance of soils to human health: new options and opportunities”. Air, Soil and Water Research 13 (2021): 1-23.
9. Abunada Z., et al. “An overview of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the environment: source, fate, risk and regulations”. Water 12 (2020): 3590.
10. Cousins IT., et al. “The concept of essential use for determining when uses of PFASs can be phased out”. Environmental Science: Processes and Impacts 11 (2019): 1803-1815.
11. Powley CR., et al. “Polyfluorinated chemicals in a spatially and temporally integrated food web in the Western arctic”. Chemosphere4 (2008): 664-672.
12. Rotander A., et al. “Increasing levels of long-chain perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCAs) in Arctic and North Atlantic marine mammals, 1984-2009”. Chemosphere 3 (2012): 278-285.
13. Lin Y., et al. “Perfluoroalkyl substances in sediments from the Bering Sea to the western Arctic: Source and pathway analysis”. Environment International 139 (2020): 105699.
14. Gockener B., et al. “Human biomonitoring of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in German blood plasma samples from 1982 to 2019”. Environment International 145 (2020): 106123.
15. Gebbink WA and Leeuwen SPJV. “Environmental contamination and human exposure to PFASs near a fluorochemical production plant: Review of historic and current PFOA and GenX contamination in the Netherlands”. Environment International 137 (2020): 105583.
16. Flaws J. IPEN ES, Plastics, EDCs and Health: A Guide for Public Interest Organizations and Policymakers on Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals and Plastics: 91 (2020).
17. European Environmental Agency. Emerging chemical risks in Europe-‘PFAS’ (2019).
18. Kim JM., et al. “Association between perfluoroalkyl substances exposure and thyroid function in adults: A meta-analysis”. PLoS One5 (2018): e0197244.
19. Beaudoina EC., et al. “Exposure to perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and associations with thyroid parameters in First Nation children and youth from Quebec”. Environment International 128 (2019): 13-23.
20. Hamers T., et al. “Transthyretin-binding activity of complex mixtures representing the composition of thyroid-hormone disrupting contaminants in house dust and human serum”. Environmental Health Perspectives 1 (2020): 17015.
21. Fenton SE., et al. “Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance toxicity and human health review: current state of knowledge and strategies for informing future research”. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 3 (2021): 606-630.
22. Vestergren R and Cousins IT. “Tracking the pathways of human exposure to perfluorocarboxylates”. Environmental Science and Technology 15 (2009): 5565-5575.
23. Vidal PC., et al. “Plant uptake of perfluoroalkyl substances in freshwater environments (Dongzhulong and Xiaoqing Rivers, China)”. Journal of Hazardous Materials 421 (2022): 126768.
24. Barton KE., et al. “Sociodemographic and behavioral determinants of serum concentrations of per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances in a community highly exposed to aqueous film-forming foam contaminants in drinking water”. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 1 (2020): 255-266.
25. Li X., et al. “Assessment of per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances in Biscayne Bay surface waters and tap waters from South Florida”. Science of the Total Environment 1 (2022): 150393.
26. Ali AM., et al. “Legacy and emerging per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFASs) in sediment and edible fish from the Eastern Red Sea”. Environmental Pollution 280 (2021): 116935.
27. Lee YM., et al. “Concentration and distribution of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the Asan Lake area of South Korea”. Journal of Hazardous Materials 381 (2020): 120909.
28. Macheka LR., et al. “Determination and assessment of human dietary intake of per and poly-fluoroalkyl substances in retail dairy milk and infant formula from South Africa”. Science of the Total Environment 755 (2020): 142697.
29. Hill NI., et al. “A sensitive method for the detection of legacy and emerging per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) in dairy milk”. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 3 (2022): 1235-1243.
30. Galloway JE., et al. “Evidence of air dispersion: HFPO-DA and PFOA in Ohio and West Virginia surface water and soil near a fluoropolymer production facility”. Environmental Science and Technology 12 (2020): 7175-7184.
31. Fenton SE., et al. “Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance toxicity and human health review: current state of knowledge and strategies for informing future research”. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 3 (2021): 606-630.
32. Conti A., et al. “Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid, a persistent organic pollutant, inhibits iodide accumulation by thyroid follicular cells in vitro”. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 515 (2020): 110922.
33. Temkin AM., et al. “Application of the key characteristics of carcinogens to per and polyfluoroalkyl substances”. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 5 (2020): 1668.
34. Habib Z., et al. “Overview of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), their applications, sources, and potential impacts on human health”. Pollutants 1 (2024): 136-152.
35. Verner MA., et al. “Associations of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) with lower birth weight: an evaluation of potential confounding by glomerular filtration rate using a physiologically based pharmacokinetic model (PBPK)”. Environmental Health Perspectives 12 (2015): 1317-1324.
36. Steenl K., et al. “Serum perfluorooctanoic acid and birth weight: an updated meta-analysis with bias analysis”. Epidemiology6 (2018): 765-776.
37. Wouter A Gebbink., et al. “Environmental contamination and human exposure to PFASs near a fluorochemical production plant: Review of historic and current PFOA and GenX contamination in the Netherlands”. Environment International 137 (2018): 105583.
38. Zheng G., et al. “Elevated levels of ultrashort- and short-chain perfluoroalkyl acids in US 2023 Homes and People”. Environmental Science and Technology 42 (2023): 15782-15793.
39. Ghisi R., et al. “Accumulation of perfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) in agricultural plants: A review”. Environmental Research 169 (2019): 326-341.
40. S. Food and Drug Administration. Per and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Cosmetics.
41. Environmental Protection Agency “Fact Sheet: PFOA and PFOS Drinking Water Health Advisories”, EPA 800-F-16-003, November 2016.
42. The EPA monitored PFAS in public water systems under the Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule (UCMR3) May, 2012, which monitors for emerging contaminants of concern that are not yet regulated.
43. Lin X., et al. “Characteristic and health risk of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances from cosmetics via dermal exposure”. Environmental Pollution 338 (2023): 122685.
44. Dewapriya P., et al. “Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in consumer products: Current knowledge and research gaps”. Journal of Hazardous Materials Letters 4 (2023): 100086.
45. Singh K., et al. “Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) as a health hazard: Current state of knowledge and strategies in environmental settings across Asia and future perspectives”. Chemical Engineering Journal 475 (2023): 145064.
46. Habib Z., et al. “Overview of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), their applications, sources, and potential impacts on human health”. Pollutants 1 (2024): 136-152.
47. Qu R., et al. “Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) affect female reproductive health: epidemiological evidence and underlying mechanisms”. Toxics 9 (2024): 678.
48. Andersen ME., et al. “Why is elevation of serum cholesterol associated with exposure to perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in humans? A workshop report on potential mechanisms”. Toxicology 459 (2021): 152845.
49. Rhea S., et al. “Serum per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) concentrations and anti-spike SARS-CoV-2 IgG levels following COVID-19 vaccination: A cross-sectional study in three communities with elevated PFAS exposure”. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 273 (2026): 114755.
50. Falls TA., et al. “Increasing PFAS concentrations in human serum correlate with elevated blood lipid levels”. Environmental Science 3 (2026): 885-899.
51. Mudgal V., et al. “Effect of toxic metals on human health”. The Open Nutraceuticals Journal 3 (2010): 94-99.
52. Mishra S., et al. “A review on epigenetic effect of heavy metal carcinogens on human health”. The Open Nutraceuticals Journal 3 (2010): 188-193.
53. James J., et al. “A review on succession of bioremediation including microbial interventions for reducing heavy metal ions contamination of natural environment”. Journal of Microbes and Research2 (2022): 12.