EC Psychology And Psychiatry

Background: ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects adolescents and, less frequently, adults. Mind-wandering (MW) is a transdiagnostic construct commonly observed in individuals with (ADHD). Although it is not included in diagnostic classifications, it has a functional impact on patients with ADHD.

Aim of the Study: To provide a detailed analysis of the differences in the effects of ADHD after six months of pharmacologic treatment versus treatment as usual, focusing on MW, quality of life, and personality dimensions. It is hypothesized that MW decreases with treatment, and that certain personality dimensions may also change as a result of the intervention.

Methods: First, a review of studies on MW indexed in PubMed is conducted. Subsequently, two groups of individuals with ADHD-those receiving pharmacological treatment and those receiving treatment as usual-are compared. The analysis focuses on differences in quality of life, MW and personality dimensions after six months.

Result: Significant differences were observed between the treatment and non-treatment ADHD groups in terms of quality of life, particularly regarding life productivity. Both groups showed a decrease in MEWS (Mind Excessively Wandering Scale) scores after six months, although the reduction was more pronounced in the treatment group. Openness to experience showed a positive correlation with scores on the MEWS. Conversely, conscientiousness showed a negative correlation with MEWS. Additionally, a predominance of hyperactivity was associated with higher levels of extraversion. Interestingly, a negative ADHD diagnosis was linked to increased agreeableness scores, highlighting potential personality differences based on diagnostic status.

Conclusion: Patients with ADHD who receive stimulant treatment show improvements in quality of life and reductions in MW, as well as some changes in personality dimensions when compared to those receiving treatment as usual. These findings underscore the important role that MW plays in ADHD, both as a clinically relevant symptom and as a potential treatment target.

 Keywords: ADHD; Mind-Wandering; Personality Dimensions; Quality of Life

1. GV Polanczyk., et al. “ADHD prevalence estimate-regression análisis”. International Journal of Epidemiology2 (2014): 434-442.
2. P Song M., et al. “The prevalence of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A global systematic review and meta-analysis”. Journal of Global Health 11 (2021): 04009.
3. J Biederman. “Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A selective overview”. Biological Psychiatry11 (2005): 1215-1220.
4. Faraone SV., et al. “The World Federation of ADHD international consensus statement: 208 evidence-based conclusións about the disorder”. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 128 (2021): 789-818.
5. American Psychiatric Association. “Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5^th Edition”. Washington: American Psychiatric Association These alterations contribute to the core symptoms of the disorder, such as inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity (2022).
6. Kane MJ., et al. “For whom the mind wanders, and when: An experience-sampling study of working memory and executive control in daily life”. Psychological Science7 (2007): 614-621.
7. Kane, M. J., et al. “For whom the mind wanders, and when, varies across laboratory and daily-life settings”. Psychological Science9 (2017): 1271-1289.
8. Killingsworth MA and Gilbert DT. “A wandering mind is an unhappy mind”. Science6006 (2010): 932.
9. Smallwood J. “Distinguishing how from why the mind wanders: A process-occurrence framework for self-generated mental activity”. Psychological Bulletin3 (2013): 519-535.
10. Kawashima I., et al. “Ecological momentary assessment of mind-wandering: Meta-analysis and systematic review”. Scientific Reports1 (2023): 2873.
11. Schooler JW., et al. “Meta-awareness, perceptual decoupling and the wandering mind”. Trends in Cognitive Sciences7 (2011): 319-326.
12. Seli P., et al. “Mind-wandering as a natural kind: A family-resemblances view”. Trends in Cognitive Sciences6 (2018): 479-490.
13. Smallwood J and Schooler JW. “The science of mind wandering: empirically navigating the stream of consciousness”. Annual Review of Psychology 1 (2015): 487-518.
14. Smallwood J and Schooler JW. “The restless mind”. Psychological Bulletin 6 (2006): 946-958.
15. Hawkins GE., et al. “Self-reported mind wandering reflects executive control and selective attention”. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 29 (2022): 2167-2180.
16. Cao Z., et al. “Development and validation of children's mind wandering scales”. Frontiers in Public Health 10 (2022): 1054023.
17. Dekkers TJ., et al. “Does mind-wandering explain ADHD-related impairment in adolescents?” Child Psychiatry and Human Development 2 (2025): 346-357.
18. Lanier J., et al. “Mind Wandering (Internal Distractibility) in ADHD: A Literature Review”. Journal of Attention Disorders 6 (2021): 885-890.
19. Lee JD. “Dynamics of Driver Distraction: The process of engaging and disengaging”. Annals of Advances in Automotive Medicine 58 (2014): 24-32.
20. Seli P., et al. “Mind-wandering with and without intention”. Trends in Cognitive Sciences8 (2016): 605-617.
21. Mrazek MD., et al. “Young and restless: Validation of the Mind-wandering questionnaire (MWQ) reveals disruptive impact of mind-wandering for youth”. Frontiers in Psychology 4 (2013): 560.
22. Christoff K., et al. “Mind-wandering as spontaneous thought: a dynamic framework”. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11 (2016): 718-731.
23. Irving ZC. “Mind‐wandering is unguided attention: Accounting for the ‘“purposeful”’ wanderer”. Philosophical Studies 173 (2016): 547-571.
24. Smith JM and Alloy LB. “A roadmap to rumination: a review of the definition, assessment, and conceptualization of this multifaceted construct”. Clinical Psychology Review 2 (2009): 116-128.
25. van Vugt MK., et al. “How does rumination impact cognition? a first mechanistic model”. Topics in Cognitive Science 1 (2018): 175-191.
26. Linz R., et al. “Mind-wandering content differentially translates from lab to daily life and relates to subjective stress experience”. Psychological Research 2 (2021): 649-659.
27. Girn M/., et al. “Updating the dynamic framework of thought: Creativity and psychedelics”. Neuroimage 213 (2020): 116726.
28. Esterman M and Rothlein D. “Models of sustained attention”. Current Opinion in Psychology 29 (2019): 174-180.
29. Fortenbaugh FC., et al. “Recent theoretical, neural, and clinical advances in sustained attention research”. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1 (2017): 70-91.
30. Mackworth NH. “The breakdown of vigilance during prolonged visual search”. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 1 (1948): 6-21.
31. Murray S., et al. “What’s in a task? complications in the study of the task-unrelated-thought variety of mind wandering”. Perspectives on Psychological Science 3 (2020): 572-588.
32. Smallwood J. “Why the global availability of mind wandering necessitates resource competition: Reply to McVay and Kane (2010)”. Psychological Bulletin2 (2010): 202-207.
33. Thomson DR., et al. “A resource-control account of sustained attention: evidence from mind-wandering and vigilance paradigms”. Perspectives on Psychological Science 1 (2015): 82-96.
34. Seli P., et al. “Intrusive thoughts linking spontaneous mind wandering and OCD symptomatology”. Psychological Research Psychologische Forschung2 (2017): 392-398.
35. Maillet D., et al. “Cognitive aging and the distinction between intentional and unintentional mind wandering”. Psychology and Aging4 (2017): 315-324.
36. Seli P., et al. “Cognitive aging and the distinction between intentional and unintentional mind wandering”. Psychology and Aging4 (2017): 315-324.
37. Teasdale JD., et al. “Stimulus-independent thought depends on central executive resources”. Memory and Cognition 5 (1995): 551-559.
38. Robison MK., et al. “A multi-faceted approach to understanding individual differences in mind-wandering”. Cognition 198 (2020): 104078.
39. Rummel J and Boywitt CD. “Controlling the stream of thought: working memory capacity predicts adjustment of mind-wandering to situational demands”. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 5 (2014): 1309-1315.
40. Unsworth N., et al. “Individual differences in lapses of attention: A latent variable analysis”. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General7 (2021): 1303-1331.
41. McVay JC and Kane MJ. “Does mind wandering reflect executive function or executive failure? Comment on Smallwood and Schooler (2006) and Watkins (2008)”. Psychological Bulletin 2 (2010): 188-197.
42. Kane MJ and McVay JC. “What mind wandering reveals about executive-control abilities and failures”. Current Directions in Psychological Science5 (2012): 348-354.
43. Smallwood J and Andrews-Hanna J. “Not all minds that wander are lost: The importance of a balanced perspective on the mind-wandering state”. Frontiers in Psychology 4 (2013): 441.
44. Dorsch F. “Focused daydreaming and mind-wandering”. Review of Philosophy and Psychology 6 (2015): 791-813.
45. Watkins ER. “Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought”. Psychological Bulletin 2 (2008): 163-206.
46. Kucyi A., et al. “Recent advances in the neuroscience of spontaneous and off-task thought: implications for mental health”. Nature Mental Health 11 (2023): 827-840.
47. Raffaelli Q., et al. “The think aloud paradigm reveals differences in the content, dynamics and conceptual scope of resting state thought in trait brooding”. Scientific Reports 11 (2021): 19362.
48. Kucyi A., et al. “Recent advances in the neuroscience of spontaneous and off-task thought: implications for mental health”. Nature Mental Health 11 (2023): 827-840.
49. Sergeant J. “The cognitive-energetic model: An empirical approach to attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder”. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews1 (2000): 7-12.
50. Sergeant JA., et al. “The top and the bottom of ADHD: A neuropsychological perspective”. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews7 (2003): 583-592.
51. Raffaelli Q., et al. “The Neuroscience of Imaginative Thought: An Integrative Framework”. In The Cambridge handbook of the imagination (ed. Abraham, A.). Cambridge University Press (2020): 332-353.
52. Buckner RL., et al. “The brain’s default network: anatomy, function, and relevance to disease”. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1124 (2008): 1-38.
53. Mason MF., et al. “Wandering minds: the default network and stimulus-independent thought”. Science 5810 (2007): 393-395.
54. Klinger E. “Structure and functions of fantasy”. Wiley Interscience (1971).
55. Ward AF and Wegner DM. “Mind-blanking: when the mind goes away”. Frontiers in Psychology 4 (2013): 650.
56. Somer E. “Maladaptive daydreaming: A qualitative inquiry”. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy 32 (2002): 197-212.
57. Somer E and Herscu O. “Childhood trauma, social anxiety, absorption and fantasy dependence: Two potential mediated pathways to maladaptive daydreaming”. Journal of Addictive Behaviors, Therapy and Rehabilitation3 (2017): 4.
58. Brown TE. “Attention deficit disorder: The unfocused mind in children and adults”. Yale University Press (2006).
59. Ozel-Kizil ET., et al. “Hyperfocusing as a dimension of adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder”. Research In Developmental Disabilities 59 (2016): 351-358.
60. Jordão M., et al. “Meta-analysis of aging effects in mind wandering: Methodological and sociodemographic factors”. Psychology and Aging 4 (2019): 531-544.
61. Velde M and Investigators EM. “How does rumination impact cognition? a first mechanistic model”. Topics in Cognitive Science1 (2018): 175-191.
62. Chaieb L., et al. “Mind wandering and depression: A status report”. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 133 (2022): 104505.
63. Franklin MS., et al. “Tracking distraction: the relationship between mind-wandering, meta-awareness, and ADHD symptomatology”. Journal of Attention Disorders6 (2017): 475-486.
64. Abramowitz JS., et al. “Assessment of obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions: development and evaluation of the Dimensional Obsessive-Compulsive Scale”. Psychological Assessment 1 (2010): 180-198.
65. Ruby FJM., et al. “How self-generated thought shapes mood—the relation between mind-wandering and mood depends on the socio-temporal content of thoughts”. PLoS ONE10 (2013): e77554.
66. Smallwood J and O’Connor RC. “Imprisoned by the past: Unhappy moods lead to a retrospective bias to mind wandering”. Cognition and Emotion8 (2011): 1481-1490.
67. Smallwood J., et al. “When attention matters: The curious incident of the wandering mind”. Memory and Cognition6 (2008): 1144-1150.
68. Risko EF., et al. “Everyday attention: variation in mind wandering and memory in a lecture: mind wandering”. Applied Cognitive Psychology 2 (2012): 234-242.
69. Fenesi B., et al. “Sweat so you don’t forget: exercise breaks during a University Lecture increase on-task attention and learning”. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition2 (2018): 261-269.
70. McVay JC and Kane MJ. “Why does working memory capacity predict variation in reading comprehension? On the influence of mind wandering and executive attention”. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General2 (2012): 302-320.
71. Unsworth N., et al. “Individual differences in lapses of attention: A latent variable analysis”. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General7 (2021): 1303-1331.
72. Burdett BRD., et al. “Mind wandering during everyday driving: An on-road study”. Accident Analysis and Prevention 122 (2019): 76-84.
73. Walker HE and Trick LM. “Mind-wandering while driving: The impact of fatigue, task length, and sustained attention abilities”. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 59 (2018): 81-97.
74. Mooneyham BW and Schooler JW. “The costs and benefits of mind-wandering: A review”. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue Canadienne de Psychologie Expérimentale1 (2013): 11-18.
75. Hobbiss MH., et al. “Attention, mind wandering, and mood”. Consciousness and Cognition 72 (2019): 1-18.
76. Salavera C and Usán P. “The mediating role of affects between mind-wandering and happiness”. Sustainability12 (2020): 5139.
77. , et al. “The idea that MW is important for future goals and behaviour (outside of the immediate) context is consistent with the work of (2012).
78. Leszczynski M., et al. “Mind wandering simultaneously prolongs. Actions and promotes creative incubation”. Scientific Reports1 (2017): 10197.
79. Gable SL., et al. “When the muses strike: creative ideas of physicists and writers routinely occur during mind wandering”. Psychological Science 3 (2019): 396-404.
80. Baird B., et al. “Back to the future: Autobiographical planning and the functionality of mind-wandering”. Consciousness and Cognition4 (2011): 1604-1611.
81. Pachai AA., et al. “The mind that wanders: challenges and potential benefits of mind wandering in education”. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology 2 (2016): 134-146.
82. Baird B., et al. “Inspired by distraction: Mind wandering facilitates creative incubation”. Psychological Science10 (2012): 1117-1122.
83. Kvavilashvili L and Rummel J. “On the nature of everyday prospection: a review and theoretical integration of research on mind-wandering, future thinking, and prospective memory”. Review of General Psychology3 (2020): 210-237.
84. , et al. “Spontaneous thought and vulnerability to mood disorders: the dark side of the wandering mind”. Clinical Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science 4.5 (2016): 835-857.
85. Poerio GL., et al. “Mind-wandering and negative mood: Does one thing really lead to another”. Consciousness and Cognition4 (2013): 1412-1421.
86. Seli P., et al. “Restless mind, restless body”. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 3 (2014): 660-668.
87. Schooler JW. “Re-representing consciousness: Dissociations between experience and meta-consciousness”. Trends in Cognitive Sciences8 (2002): 339-344.
88. Smallwood J., et al. “Shifting moods, wandering minds: Negative moods lead the mind to wander”. Emotion 2 (2009): 271-276.
89. Seli P., et al. “On the relation of mind wandering and ADHD symptomatology”. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 3 (2015): 629-636.
90. Franklin MS., et al. “Tracking distraction”. Journal of Attention Disorders6 (2017): 475-486.
91. Mowlem FD., et al. “Evaluating a scale of excessive mind wandering among males and females with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder from a population sample”. Scientific Reports1 (2019): 3071.
92. Murray S., et al. “The scientific study of passive thinking: The methodology of mind-wandering research”. In F. DeBrigard and W. Sinnot-Armstrong (Eds.), Philosophy and neuroscience. MIT Press (2022): 267-296.
93. Bozhilova N., et al. “Mind wandering perspective on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder”. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews2 (2018): 464-476.
94. Martz E., et al. “Beyond motor hyperactivity: racing thoughts are an integral symptom of adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder”. Psychiatry Research 301 (2021): 113988.
95. Theodor-Katz N., et al. “Could immersive daydreaming underlie a deficit in attention? The prevalence and characteristics of maladaptive daydreaming in individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder”. Journal of Clinical Psychology11 (2022): 2309-2328.
96. Thiemann RF., et al. “Differential relationships between thought dimensions and momentary affect in daily life”. Psychological Research 87 (2023): 1632-1643.
97. Weyandt LL., et al. “The internal restlessness scale: performance of college students with and without ADHD”. Journal of Learning Disabilities 4 (2003): 382-389.
98. Arabaci G and Parris BA. “Probe-caught spontaneous and deliberate Mind wandering in relation to self-reported inattentive, hyperactive and impulsive traits in adults”. Scientific Reports 8 (2018): 4113.
99. Gonen-Yaacovi G., et al. “Increased ongoing neural variability in ADHD”. Cortex 81 (2016): 50-63.
100. Rafia H., et al. “The continuum of attention dysfunction: evidence from dynamic functional network connectivity analysis in neurotypical adolescents”. PLoS One1 (2023): e0279260.
101. Alperin BR., et al. “More than off-task: increased freely-moving thought in ADHD”. Consciousness and Cognition 93 (2021): 103156.
102. Stawarczyk D., et al. “Concern-induced negative affect is associated with the occurrence and content of mind-wandering”. Consciousness and Cognition 2 (2013): 442-448.
103. Hoffmann, F., et al. “Where the depressed mind wanders: self-generated thought patterns as assessed through experience sampling as a state marker of depression”. Journal of Affective Disorders 198 (2016): 127-134.
104. Hamlat EJ., et al. “Rumination and over general autobiographical memory in adolescents: integration of cognitive vulnerabilities to depression”. Journal of Youth and Adolescence4 (2015): 806-818.
105. Killingsworth MA and Gilbert DT. “A wandering mind is an unhappy mind”. Science 330 (2010): 932.
106. Mills C., et al. “Is an off-task Mind a freely moving Mind? Examining the relationship between different dimensions of thought”. Consciousness and Cognition 58 (2018): 20-33.
107. Richards JM and Gross JJ. “Composure at any cost? the cognitive consequences of emotion suppression”. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin8 (1999): 1033-1044.
108. Kruger TB., et al. “Using deliberate mind-wandering to escape negative mood states: Implications for gambling to escape”. Journal of Behavioral Addictions3 (2020): 723-733.
109. Stawarczyk D., et al. “Mind-wandering: Phenomenology and function as assessed with a novel experience sampling method”. Acta Psychologica3 (2011): 370-381.
110. Perkins AM., et al. “Thinking too much: self-generated thought as the engine of neuroticism”. Trends in Cognitive Sciences9 (2015): 492-498.
111. Caron EE., et al. “Examining the relation between perfectionism and mind wandering”. Journal of Research in Personality 104 (2023): 104379.
112. Evren C., et al. “The relationship of social anxiety disorder symptoms with probable attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in Turkish university students impact of negative affect and personality traits of neuroticism and extraversion”. Psychiatry Research 254 (2017): 158-163.
113. Gomez R., et al. “Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms in an adult sample: Associations with Cloninger’s temperament and character dimensions”. Personality and Individual Differences 3 (2012): 290-294.
114. Merwood A., et al. “Genetic associations between the ADHD symptom dimensions and Cloninger’s temperament dimensions in adult twins”. European Neuropsychopharmacology 6 (2013): 416-425.
115. Nigg JT., et al. “Big five dimensions and ADHD symptoms: links between personality traits and clinical symptoms”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2 (2002): 451-469.
116. Costa PT Jr and McCrae RR. “The SAGE Handbook of Personality Theory and Assessment: Volume 2 Personality Measurement and Testing”. In The SAGE Handbook of Personality Theory and Assessment: Volume 2—Personality Measurement and Testing. SAGE Publications Ltd (2008): 179-198.
117. John OP., et al. “Paradigm shift to the integrative Big Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and conceptual issues”. In Handbook of personality: Theory and research, 3^rd The Guilford Press (2008): 114-158.
118. Sassenberg TA., et al. “Imagination as a facet of openness/intellect: a new scale differentiating experiential simulation and conceptual innovation”. Creativity Research Journal4 (2023): 583-595.
119. Ibaceta M and Madrid HP. “Personality and mind-wandering self-perception: the role of meta-awareness”. Frontiers in Psychology 12 (2021): 581129.
120. Robison MK., et al. “A multi-faceted approach to understanding individual differences in mind-wandering”. Cognition 198 (2020): 104078.
121. Rummel J., et al. “How consistent is mind wandering across situations and tasks? A latent state-trait analysis”. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition10 (2022): 1385-1399.
122. Schubert AL., et al. “The brief mind wandering three-factor scale (BMW-3)”. Behavior Research Methods 8 (2024): 8720-8744.
123. Caron EE., et al. “Examining the relation between perfectionism and mind wandering”. Journal of Research in Personality 104 (2023): 104379.
124. Muller M., et al. “Mind-wandering mediates the associations between neuroticism and conscientiousness, and tendencies towards smartphone use disorder”. Frontiers in Psychology 12 (2021): 661541.
125. Roberts BW., et al. “Patterns of mean level change in personality traits across the life course: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies”. Psychological Bulletin1 (2006): 1-25.
126. Borella E., et al. “Cognitive and non-cognitive variables influencing age-related effect of mind wandering across the adult life span”. European Journal of Ageing2 (2022): 277-292.
127. Giambra LM. “Task-unrelated-thought frequency as a function of age: A laboratory study”. Psychology and Aging 2 (1989): 136-143.
128. Kane Jackson JD and Balota DA. “Mind-wandering in younger and older adults: converging evidence from the Sustained Attention to Response Task and reading for comprehension”. Psychology and Aging 1 (2012): 106-119.
129. Bleidorn W., et al. “Patterns and sources of adult personality development: Growth curve analyses of the NEO PI-R scales in a longitudinal twin study”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology1 (2009): 142-155.
130. Roberts BW and Mroczek D. “Personality trait change in adulthood”. Current Directions in Psychological Science1 (2008): 31-35.
131. Carciofo R., et al. “Mind wandering, sleep quality, affect and chronotype: an exploratory study”. PLoS One3 (2014): e91285.
132. Cárdenas-Egúsquiza AL and Berntsen D. “Sleep well, mind wander less: a systematic review of the relationship between sleep outcomes and spontaneous cognition”. Consciousness and Cognition 102 (2022): 103333.
133. Fox KC., et al. “The wandering brain: meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies of mind-wandering and related spontaneous thought processes”. Neuroimage 111 (2015): 611-621.
134. Kucyi A., et al. “Recent advances in the neuroscience of spontaneous and off-task thought: implications for mental health”. Nature Mental Health 11 (2023): 827-840.
135. Philippi CL., et al. “Lesion network mapping demonstrates that mind-wandering is associated with the default mode network”. Journal of Neuroscience Research1 (2021): 361-373.
136. Christoff K., et al. “Mind-wandering as spontaneous thought: a dynamic framework”. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 17 (2016): 718-731.
137. Menon V and Uddin LQ. “Saliency, switching, attention and control: a network model of Insula function”. Brain Structure and Function 5-6 (2010): 655-667.
138. Molnar-Szakacs I and Uddin LQ. “Anterior Insula as a gatekeeper of executive control”. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 139 (2022): 104736.
139. Raichle ME and Snyder AZ. “A default mode of brain function: a brief history of an evolving idea”. Neuroimage 4 (2007): 1083-1090 discussion 1097-1099.
140. Buckner RL., et al. “The brain’s default network: anatomy, function, and relevance to disease”. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1124 (2008): 1-38.
141. Mason MF., et al. “Wandering minds: the default network and stimulus-independent thought”. Science5810 (2007): 393-395.
142. Godwin CA., et al. “Functional connectivity within and between intrinsic brain networks correlates with trait mind wandering”. Neuropsychologia 103 (2017): 140-153.
143. Christoff K., et al. “Experience sampling during fMRI reveals default network and executive system contributions to mind wandering”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America21 (2009): 8719-8724.
144. Knouse L., et al. “Accuracy of self-evaluation in adults with ADHD: evidence from a driving study”. Journal of Attention Disorders 4 (2005): 221-234.
145. Du Rietz E., et al. “Self-report of ADHD shows limited agreement with objective markers of persistence and remittance”. Journal of Psychiatric Research 82 (2016): 91-99.
146. Sibley MH., et al. “When diagnosing ADHD in young adults emphasize informant reports, DSM items, and impairment”. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 6 (2012): 1052-1061.
147. Mowlem F., et al. “Validation of the mind excessively wandering scale and the relationship of mind wandering to impairment in adult ADHD”. Journal of Attention Disorders 6 (2019): 624-634.
148. Mrazek MD., et al. “Young and restless: validation of the mind-wandering questionnaire (MWQ) reveals disruptive impact of mind-wandering for youth”. Frontiers in Psychology 4 (2013): 560.
149. Asherson P. “Clinical assessment and treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults”. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics4 (2005): 525-539.
150. Morillas-Romero A., et al. “Spanish and cross-cultural validation of the mind excessively wandering scale”. Frontiers in Psychology 14 (2023): 1181294.
151. Schubert AL., et al. “The brief mind wandering three-factor scale (BMW-3)”. Behavior Research Methods 8 (2024): 8720-8744.
152. Lopez A., et al. “The four factors of mind wandering questionnaire: content, construct, and clinical validity”. Assessment2 (2023): 433-447.
153. Carriere JSA., et al. “Wandering in both mind and body: individual differences in mind wandering and inattention predict fidgeting”. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology 1 (2013): 19-31.
154. Weinstein Y. “Mind-wandering, how do I measure thee with probe Let me count the ways”. Behavior Research Methods2 (2018): 642-661.
155. Hurlburt RT and Heavey CL. “Telling what we know: describing inner experience”. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9 (2001): 400-403.
156. Welhaf MS and Kane MJ. “A nomothetic span approach to the construct validation of sustained attention consistency: re-analyzing two latent-variable studies of performance variability and mind-wandering self-reports”. Psychological Research 1 (2024): 39-80.
157. Robison MK and Unsworth N. “Cognitive and contextual correlates of spontaneous and deliberate mind-wandering”. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition1 (2018): 85-98.
158. Rummel J and Nied L. “Do drives drive the train of thought?—Effects of hunger and sexual arousal on mind-wandering behavior”. Consciousness and Cognition 55 (2017): 179-187.
159. Greenberg J., et al. “Compassionate hearts protect against wandering minds: Self-compassion moderates the effect of mind wandering on depression”. Spirituality in Clinical Practice3 (2018): 155-169.
160. Mrazek MD., et al. “Mindfulness training improves working memory capacity and GRE performance while reducing mind wandering”. Psychological Science5 (2013a): 776-781.
161. Mrazek MD., et al. “Young and restless: Validation of the Mind-Wandering Questionnaire (MWQ) reveals disruptive impact of mind wandering” (2013b).
162. Brod M., et al. “Validation of the adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder quality-of-life scale (AAQoL): a disease-specific quality-of-life measure”. Quality of Life Research 1 (2006): 117-129.
163. Ramos-Quiroga JA., et al. “Criteria and concurrent validity of DIVA 2.0: a semi-structured diagnostic interview for adult ADHD”. Journal of Attention Disorders 10 (2019): 1126-1135.
164. Uğur Takım and Hasan Gökçay. “Examination of excessive mind-wandering following attention-deficit and hyperactivity disorder treatment in adults”. Psychological Reports 2 (2024): 816-826.
165. Parker JDA., et al. “ADHD symptoms and personality: Relationships with the five-factor model”. Personality and Individual Differences4 (2004): 977-987.
166. O’Neill S and Rudenstine S. “Inattention, emotion dysregulation and impairment among urban, diverse adults seeking psychological treatment”. Psychiatry Research 282 (2019): 112631.
167. Roberts BW and Mroczek D. “Personality trait change in adulthood”. Current Directions in Psychological Science 1 (2008): 31-35.
168. Jackson JD and Balota DA. “Mind-wandering in younger and older adults: Converging evidence from the sustained attention to response task and reading for comprehension”. Psychology and Aging1 (2012): 106-119.
169. Kane MJ., et al. “For whom the mind wanders, and when, varies across laboratory and daily-life settings”. Psychological Science 9 (2017): 1271-1289.
170. Reiner AI., et al. “Does stimulant medication status moderate the association between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and rumination?” Journal of Attention Disorders9 (2025): 766-772.
171. Terpou BA., et al. “The hijacked self: Disrupted functional connectivity between the periaqueductal gray and the default mode network in posttraumatic stress disorder using dynamic causal modeling”. NeuroImage: Clinical 27 (2020): 102345.
172. Hayes SC and Barnes-Holmes D. “Relational operants: processes and implications: a response to Palmer's review of Relational Frame Theory”. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 2 (2004): 213-224 discussion 225-234.
173. Pagnoni G., et al. “"Thinking about not-thinking": neural correlates of conceptual processing during Zen meditation”. PLoS One9 (2008): e3083.
174. Song X and Wang X. “Mind wandering in Chinese daily lives--an experience sampling study”. PLoS One9 (2012): e44423.