EC Microbiology

Plant-parasitic nematodes are harmful to many economic important crops, but their damage is often overlooked. Many plant- parasitic nematode species are capable of inflicting severe above-ground damage. Investigations started in Sudan since the late sixties. Some 80 species of plant-parasitic nematodes have been detected in and around the roots of many cultivated and weed plants in various localities throughout the country. There is substantial evidence that the impact of the nematode upon the yield is underestimated, at least in the Gezira. In this review we tried to report the most common control of plant parasitic methods used in Sudan. A number of nematicides, including fenamiphos, aldicarb and Nemagon, were all tested in soil under cotton cv. Barakat, at a site at the Gezira Research Station (GRS). containing relatively high densities of Pratylenchus sudanensis. All three nematicides resulted in up to 72 to 90 percent increase in the yield of seed cotton and up to 36 to 88 percent reduction in nematode densities over the control. The majority of investigations were undertaken on Meloidogyne javanica and M. incognita in tomato as it is the most important pest in this very popular and widely grown vegetable crop. Recently we tested many herbal extracts to control root knot nematodes to avoid chemical hazards and we found that this method can be as alternative to chemical control and/or one of the integrated pest management tools.

Keywords: Plant Parasitic Nematodes; Meloidogyne javanica; M. incognita

1. Afzal A and Mukhtar T. “Revolutionizing nematode management to achieve global food security goals - An overview”. Heliyon3 (2024): e25325.
2. Ahmed S and Mohammad M. “Effect of Paecilomyces lilacinus on tomato plants and the management of root knot nematodes”. Journal of the Bangladesh Agricultural University1 (2020): 9-13.
3. Aji BM. “Use of plant material in the management of plant parasitic nematodes” (2024).
4. Arley Rey Páez. “Plant-parasitic nematodes and their management: a focus on new nematicides”. In book: Nematodes - Ecology, Adaptation and Parasitism, Publisher: IntechOpen (2023).
5. Atira LS and Kakouli-Duarte T. “Implications of fertilisation on soil nematode community structure and nematode-mediated nutrient cycling”. Crops 4 (2025): 50.
6. Barron GL. “The nematodes destroying fungi”. Topic in Nematology 1 (1977): 144.
7. Rubin B., et al. “Soil solarization an environmentally-friendly alternative”. Technical Meeting on Non-Chemical Alternatives for Soil-Borne Pest Control. 26-28 June 2007, Hungary. Funded by FAO and UNEP (2007).
8. Bogale M., et al. “Nematode identification techniques and recent advances”. Plants (Basel)10 (2020): 1260.
9. Brzeski MW. “Nematodes of Tylenchina in Poland and temperate Europe”. Museum and es of cereal cyst nematodes, Heterodera avenae in Southern Sweden. Journal of Nematology, 17 Institute of Zoology Polish Academy of Sciences Warszawa (1998): 395.
10. “Verticillium chlamydosporium (nematode egg parasite)”. CABI Compendium (2019).
11. Desaeger J., et al. “New reduced-risk agricultural nematicides - rationale and review”. Journal of Nematology 52 (2020): e2020-91.
12. Ehi-Eromosele C. “Integrated pest management”. In book: Weed and Pest Control Chapter: Integrated Pest Management Publisher: InTech Publisher, Croatia (2013).
13. Elbadri GAA and Abdelmaged Mohamed Yassin. “Sesame's Protective role in crop nematode control”. Chapter In Book: Sesame. Dorothea Bedigian (Ed) ISBN: 978-0-8493-3538-8 CRC Press (2010).
14. Elbadri Gamal Abdalla., et al. “Evaluation of various plant extracts for their nematicidal efficacies against juveniles of Meloidogyne incognita”. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology2 (2008): 99-102.
15. Elbadri GAA. “Annual report Gezira Research Station, Wad Medani, Sudan” (2004).
16. Elbadri GAA. “Biological control of root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne) by using Nematophagous fungi and integrated with a nematicide”. M.Sc. thesis, University of New Castle Upon Tyne, UK (1991): 79.
17. Elbadri GAA and EI Mohamad. “Root knot nematode problems on vegetables along the Blue Nile bank in the Gezira State”. Nematology for Africa, First PINCNET Africa -workshop. IITA Ibadan (2003).
18. Fan Z., et al. “Activity of chitin/chitosan/chitosan oligosaccharide against plant pathogenic nematodes and potential modes of application in agriculture: A review”. Carbohydrate Polymers2 (2023): 120592.
19. Ferris H., et al. “1 roles of nematodes in ecosystems: Their biology and ecology”. © CAB International 2026. Nematodes as Environmental Indicators: From Theory to Practice, 2^nd Edition (T. Kakouli-Duarte., et al. eds) (2026).
20. Ferris H., et al. “Resistance of grape rootstocks to plant-parasitic nematodes”. Journal of Nematology 4 (2012): 377-386.
21. Freire FCO and Bridge J. “Parasitism of eggs, females and juveniles of Meloidogyne incognita by Paecilomyces lilacinus and Verticillium chlamydosporium. incognita by Paecilomyces lilacinus and Verticillium chlamydosporium”. Fitopathologica Brasilaria 10 (1985): 577-596.
22. Foote E David Jordan., et al. “Previous cropping sequence affects plant-parasitic nematodes and yield of peanut and cotton more than continuous use of Fluopyram”. Crops 2 (2025): 12.
23. Gowen SR and Quénéhervé P. “Nematode parasites of bananas, plantains and abaca”. In M. Luc, R.A. Sikora & J. Bridge, eds. Plant-parasitic nematodes in subtropical and tropical agriculture. Wallingford, UK, CAB International (1990): 431-460.
24. Herppich WB and Tamás Zsom. “Comprehensive assessment of the dynamics of banana chilling injury by advanced optical techniques”. Applied Sciences 23 (2021): 11433.
25. Hickman P and Louise-Marie Dandurand. “Crop rotation with resistant potato and Solanum sisymbriifolium to Control Globodera pallida”. Journal of Nematology1 (2025): 20250054.
26. Hirsch PR., et al. “Methods for studying the nematophagous fungus Verticillium chlamydosporium in the root environment”. Plant and Soil1 (2001): 21-30.
27. Han S., et al. “Editorial: Resistance of plants to parasitic nematodes and its application in breeding”. Frontiers in Plant Science 15 (2024).
28. Huub J Spiertz. “Challenges for crop production research in improving land use”. Productivity and Sustainability 4 (2013): 1632-1644.
29. İlker Kepenekçi and Emre Evlice. “Antalya ve Eskişehir illerindeki Enginar (Cynara scolymus) ekiliş alanlarında saptanan Tylenchida (Nematoda) takımına ait bitki paraziti nematodlar”. Plant Protection Bulletin 53.3 (2013): 185-190.
30. Jean-Claude Bertrand., et al. “Microorganisms and biotic interactions”. Environmental Microbiology: Fundamentals and Applications 29 (2015): 395-444.
31. Kantor C., et al. “Biosecurity risks to human food supply associated with plant-parasitic nematodes”. Frontiers in Plant Science 15 (2024): 1404335.
32. Kelly J., et al. “Reproduction of incognita on hybrid rice and survey of plant parasitic nematodes in furrow-irrigated in Arkansas”. Nematropica 52.2 (2022): 94-102.
33. Khanal C and Land J. “Study on two nematode species suggests climate change will inflict greater crop damage”. Scientific Reports 13 (2023): 14185.
34. Mahoonaki FS., et al. “Morphological and molecular characterization of Meloidogyne arenaria () populations parasitizing Pistachio in Kerman and Khorasan Razavi Provinces, Iran”. Journal of Nematology 1 (2024): 20240043.
35. Nigood M., et al. “Efficacy of plant extracts against juveniles of Meloidogyne javanica (Treub, 1885)”. Sudan Journal of Agricultural Research 22 (2013): 95-110.
36. Nigood M., et al. “Inhibition of Meloidogyne javanica eggs hatching with selected plant species extracts”. Sudan Journal of Agricultural Research 21 (2012): 74-53.
37. Rahman Khan M. “Plant nematodes, an underestimated constraint in the global food production”. In: Nematode Diseases of Crops and their Sustainable Management. Mujeebur Rahman Khan and Marisol Quintanilla (Eds) Academic Press ISBN: 978-0-323-91226-6 (2023): 3-26.
38. Nuaima RH. “The difference in the bacterial attachment among Pratylenchus neglectus populations and its effect on the nematode infection”. Microorganisms8 (2022): 1524.
39. Oka Y. “From old-generation to next-generation nematicides”. Agronomy9 (2020): 1387.
40. Prabha A., et al. “2 - Nanotechnology and sustainable agriculture” (2022).
41. Pulavarty A., et al. “Plant parasitic nematodes: A review on their behavior, host interaction, management approaches and their occurrence in two sites in the Republic of Ireland”. Plants (Basel)11 (2021): 2352.
42. Philbrick NA., et al. “Meloidogyne enterolobii, a major threat to tomato production: current status and future prospects for its management”. Frontiers in Plant Science 11 (2020): 606395.
43. Reuther M., et al. “Nematode-tolerant sugar beet varieties - Resistant or susceptible to the beet cyst nematode Heterodera schachtii?” Sugar Industry5 (2017): 277-284.
44. Ribeiro LM., et al. “Survival of Pratylenchus brachyurus under dry soil conditions”. Heliyon9 (2020): e05075.
45. Sagar GC., et al. “Elevated soil temperatures impact nematode reproduction biology”. Stresses 1 (2025): 2.
46. Schumacher LA., et al. “Vertical distribution of plant-parasitic nematodes in peanut-cotton cropping systems”. Applied Soil Ecology 200 (2024): 105445.
47. Sehgal M., et al. “Plant parasitic nematodes and their management”. In book: Insect and non insect pests and their management Publisher: Elite Publishing House, New Delhi, India (2025).
48. Starr JL., et al. “Resistance to plant-parasitic nematodes: history, current use and future potential”. In book: Plant resistance to parasitic nematodes (2002): 1-22.
49. Tarryn Wettergreen and Rinus Knoetze. “Hot water treatment - effective eradication of root-knot nematodes?”. Viticulture Research (2022).
50. Umetsu N and Shirai Y. “Development of novel pesticides in the 21^st century”. Journal of Pesticide Science 2 (2020): 54-74.
51. Whitehead AG. “Plant nematode control”. CAB International. Harpenden, Herts., UK (1997): Pp. 384. viii+384 pp. ref. 89 pp.
52. Weischer B and Brown DJF. “An introduction to nematodes”. General Nematology, Student guide book. Pensoft -Sofia, Moscow (2000): 189.
53. Wszelaki L. Southeaster U.S. Vegetable Crop Handbook (2026): 382.
54. Yassin AM. “Nematodes parasites of crop plants in the Sudan”. Agricultural research corporation. Technical Bulletin No. 4 (New Series) (1986).
55. Zasada IA., et al. “Managing nematodes without methyl bromide”. Annual Review of Phytopathology 48 (2010): 311-328.
56. Zeidan AB. “Identity, biology and control of root-knot nematodes in the Sudan with special emphasis to Meloidogyne javanica Treub”. M.Sc. Thesis (1981).
57. Zhang K. “Soil-borne nematodes: Impact in agriculture and livestock and sustainable strategies of prevention and control with special reference to the use of nematode natural enemies”. Pathogens6 (2022): 640.