EC Gynaecology

There is a belief that same-sex couples such as lesbians, by nature of their sexual orientation, do not desire or intend to have children of their own. However, parenthood is a very much cherished life goal, and the aspirations thereto transcends ones sexual orientation.

The proportions of lesbians out of total female populations have increased across all races globally over the recent past due to societal transformations among other factors. Many of the lesbians are young, fertile and some have parenthood aspirations. There are numerous reports and publications on lesbians intending to have or with children mainly from developed countries.

There is a yawning paucity of published data about parenthood aspirations among lesbians/lesbian families, considered as one of the “new family forms”, from Sub-Saharan Africa.

This paper reviews the literature on parenthood aspirations among lesbians in discussing two cases of lesbian couples desiring/intending to have children, managed by the author in his private clinic in a major cosmopolitan city in East Africa. It discusses the various approaches to achieving the goal, challenges thereto, and highlights the role of health care professionals in the care of such individuals in our context.

Keywords: Parenthood Aspirations; Sexual Orientation; Sub-Saharan Africa

1. McGoldrick M., et al. “The Expanding Family life cycle: Individual, Family, and Social Perspectives”. Harlow: Pearson (2015).
2. Gato J., et al. “To have or not to have a children? That is the question. Factors influencing parental decisions among lesbians and gay men”. Sexuality Research and Social Policy 14 (2017): 310-323.
3. Bos H and Gartrell N. “Lesbian-mother families formed through donor insemination”. In: LGBTQ-parent families. Cham: Springer (2020): 25-44.
4. Gartrell N., et al. “The USA National Lesbian Family Study: Interviews with Mothers of 10-Year-Olds”. Feminism and Psychology2 (2006): 175-192.
5. Rahman Q., et al. “Prevalence of Sexual Orientation across 28 Nations and Its Association with Gender Equality, Economic Development, and Individualism”. Archives of Sexual Behavior 49 (2020): 595-606.
6. Varrela S. LGBTQ Worldwide Statistics and Facts (2022).
7. Kolk M and Andersson G. “Two Decades of Same-Sex Marriage in Sweden: A Demographic Account of Developments in Marriage, Childbearing, and Divorce”. Demography1 (2020): 147-169.
8. Golombok S. “Modern families: parents and children in new family forms”. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (2015): 268.
9. Zaidi SS., et al. “Women Who Have Sex with Women in Kenya and Their Sexual and Reproductive Health”. LGBT Health2 (2016): 139-145.
10. Costa PA and Bidell M. “Modern families: parenthood desire, intention, and experience among Portuguese lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals”. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 38 (2017): 500-521.
11. Scandurra C., et al. “The influence of minority stress, gender, and legalization of civil unions on parenthood desire and intention in lesbian women and gay men: implications for social policy and clinical practice”. Journal of GLBT Family Studies 15 (2019): 76-100.
12. Tate DP., et al. “Predictors of parenting intentions among childless lesbian, gay, and heterosexual adults”. Journal of Family Psychology 33 (2019): 194-202.
13. Tate DP and Patterson CJ. “Desire for Parenthood in Context of Other Life Aspirations among Lesbian, Gay, and Heterosexual Young Adults”. Frontiers in Psychology 10 (2019): 2679.
14. Aldén L., et al. “Effect of Registered Partnership on Labor Earnings and Fertility for Same-Sex Couples: Evidence from Swedish Register Data”. Demography 52 (2015): 1243-1268.
15. Gates GJ., et al. “Adoption and foster care by gay and lesbian parents in the United States”. Los Angeles: The Williams Institute, University of California at Los Angeles (2007).
16. Bos HM and Van Balen F. “Children in planned lesbian families: stigmatisation, psychological adjustment and protective factors”. Culture, Health and amp; Sexuality 10 (2008): 221-236.
17. Everett BG., et al. “Sexual Orientation Disparities in Pregnancy and Infant Outcomes”. Maternal and Child Health Journal 23 (2019): 72-81.
18. Goldberg AE., et al. Research report on LGB-parent families Los Angeles, CA (2014).
19. Baiocco R and Laghi F. “Sexual orientation and the desires and intentions to become parents”. Journal of Family Studies1 (2013): 90-98.
20. Turcan P., et al. “Desire for Parenthood and Associated Trends in Czech Lesbian Women”. Sexual Medicine 8 (2020): 650-659.
21. Simon KA., et al. “Envisioning future parenthood among bisexual, lesbian, and heterosexual women”. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity 5 (2018): 253-259.
22. Tate DP., et al. “Predictors of parenthood intentions among childless lesbian, gay, and heterosexual adults”. Journal of Family Psychology 33 (2019): 194-202.
23. Ryan-Flood R. “Contested heteronormativities: Discourse of fatherhood among lesbian parents in Sweden and Ireland”. Sexualities2 (2005): 189-204.
24. Kelly F. “An alternative conception: The legality of home insemination under Canada’s Assisted Human Reproduction Act”. Canadian Journal of Family Law 26 (2010): 149-170.
25. Leckey R. “The practices of lesbian mothers and Quebec’s reforms”. Canadian Journal of Women and the Law2 (2011): 579-599.
26. Côté I., et al. “Interpreting fatherhood after donation: Social representations and identity resonances among men having assisted a lesbian couple in becoming parents”. Psychology of Men and Masculinities3 (2020): 453-462.
27. Gregg I. “The Health Care Experiences of Lesbian Women Becoming Mothers”. Nursing for Women's Health1 (2018): 40-50.
28. Farr RH and Patterson CJ. “Co-parenting Among Lesbian, Gay, and Heterosexual Couples: Associations with Adopted Children’s Outcomes”. Child Development4 (2013): 1226.
29. Nordqvist P. “Origins and originators: Lesbian couples negotiating parental identities and sperm donor conception”. Culture, Health and Sexuality3 (2012): 297-311.
30. Tasker F and Bellamy C. “Adoption by same-sex couples--reaffirming evidence: could more children be placed?” Family Law (2019).
31. Simon KA., et al. “Sexual minority women and parenthood: perceptions of friendship among childfree and new parents”. Journal of Lesbian Studies 23 (2019): 476-489.
32. Leal D., et al. “How does sexual orientation influence intergenerational family solidarity? An exploratory study”. Journal of Prevention and Intervention Community 19 (2019): 1-12.
33. Goldberg A E., et al. “Why parenthood, and why now? Gay men’s motivations for pursuing parenthood”. Family Relations 61 (2012): 157-174.
34. Kleinert E., et al. “Motives and decisions for and against having children among non-heterosexuals and the impact of experiences of discrimination, internalized stigma, and social acceptance”. The Journal of Sex Research2 (2015): 174-185.
35. Gato J., et al. “Parenthood desires, parenthood intentions, and anticipation of stigma upon parenthood among lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual women in Portugal”. Journal of Lesbian Studies 23 (2019): 451-463.
36. Siegenthaler AL., et al. “The Value of Children to Lesbian and Non-Lesbian Mothers”. Journal of Homosexuality2 (2000): 73-91.
37. Boye K, Evertsson M. Who Gives Birth (First) in Female Same-Sex Couples in Sweden? J Marriage Fam. 2021 Aug;83(4):925-941.